Soybean aphids on a single leaf, 2002. In Minnesota, as many as 13,000 soybean aphids have been found on a single plant.

June 27, 2003

Growing degree day and evapotranspiration data updated daily in CropWatch

While reports of small to 1.5-inch hail were fairly common in areas of central Nebraska, Aurora in Hamilton County reported hail ranging from the size of a softball to a small cantaloupe. The National Weather Service (NWS) in Hastings measured the largest recovered hail stone in Aurora and found it just 1/8 inch short of the national record for circumference of a single hail stone.

Large hail stones like those falling in Aurora Sunday night are extremely rare, said Steve Carmel, hydrological meteorological technician at the National Weather Service office in Hastings. The difference between a storm that produces record-setting stones and one producing "regular" sized stones is the strength of the updraft in the storm cell. In a strong supercell, like the one that hovered over Thayer and Hamilton counties Sunday night, hail develops and moves up and down in the center of the cell until it becomes so heavy it falls to the ground. To create hail the size of that found in Aurora, you would need an updraft of more than 300 mph, Carmel said.

"With a diameter of 6.5 inches and a circumference of 17 3/8 inches, it was pretty amazing," said Steve Carmel, hydrological meteorological technician at the NWS office in Hastings. (The current record-holding hail stone fell in Coffeeville Kansas in 1970.) Luckily, the larger hail stones were somewhat of an anomaly.

Andy Christiansen, Extension Educator in Hamilton County, reported that most of the hail damage was limited to a relatively small area north of Hampton. About eight sections of farmland between Benedict and Hampton had quite a few soybean acres with almost total defoliation and many broken stems. Corn in that area was severely shredded, but little was actually sawed off. Another 10-15 sections in Hamilton and York counties had less severe damage.

"There will be some replanting of soybeans," Christiansen said, "but I doubt much corn will be touched."

In neighboring York County, Extension Educator Gary Zoubek said 25-30 sections had at least some hail damage, varying greatly depending on crop and stage of development.

In Nebraska, summer can be stormy and events such as those earlier this week are likely to occur somewhere in the state for the next six to ten weeks. If hail strikes your farm, the following information may be helpful in assessing your options. In most cases, wait 7-10 days before making any decisions.

Replanting considerations

For many producers, options may be limited by previous herbicide selection, timing (in many areas it's too late to replant corn), and wet fields. Many areas received heavy rains with the hail, delaying when producers might reenter the field. Producers will need to consider potential yield loss of the existing crop vs. replanting costs and potential reduced yields. In some cases, the reduced yield of a hail-damaged field may be higher than the potential yield from replanting. It's almost too late to replant corn for grain and replanting soybeans now could mean up to a 30% potential yield reduction. Estimated yield losses for sorghum are slightly less than for soybeans at this time.

Before doing anything with the field, notify the proper government agency and, if you plan to make a claim, your insurance provider. Discuss replant options and limits; when they'll be able to determine the severity of the loss and their assessment of the loss. Next, consider your investment in the crop, additional expenses, and expected yield at this point. Weed and pest control will continue to be costly, and weed control may be even more difficult if the crop canopy is open. Be sure to consider herbicide replant options for this year as well as next year if applying herbicide this late in the season.

Whenever you open the canopy, weeds will develop quickly. Timely rescue treatments when the weeds are small will be most effective and cost efficient. Otherwise weeds may grow quickly and make harvest difficult to impossible. In addition the weeds will use valuable moisture and nutrients and be very competitive with the crop. Once established they also will produce weed seed which can complicate weed control in future years. If you plan to rotate to another crop next year, check the herbicide label carefully to ensure that herbicide carryover won't be a problem.

Hail and wind damaged fields also may face increased insect problems, depending on area infestations. Some insects prefer later maturing corn and may flock to those fields, requiring continued diligence in scouting. Diseases too can flare in plants where hail or wind may have damaged the plant and created openings for pathogens to infect the plant.

Hail damage assessment and management options vary according to plant stage, however the procedures are fairly similar from crop to crop and stage to stage:

• estimate the growth stage;
• assess the damage; and
• consider options if yield potentials are low.

Resources

Three NebGuides -- for corn, soybeans and sorghum -- offer valuable information on assessing hail damage and estimating potential yield losses at various stages. Correct assessment of potential yield is essential when determining continued inputs (herbicides, tillage, irrigation, etc.) Check with your local Cooperative Extension office for a copy or view them on the Web.

Yield from axillary regrowth is much lower than yield from crown regrowth. Since some branches usually remain after hail, regrowth rates can be very low if many plants in the field were damaged. You can speed up recovery of alfalfa by harvesting the field as soon as possible after hail to encourage crown regrowth rather than axillary regrowth. Deciding when is your biggest challenge.

The amount of damage and nearness to harvest both affect this decision. Cut immediately if plants have reached late bud stage and more than 25% of plant tips are broken. For younger plants, cut if one-half or more of the plant's growing tips are injured. Harvest or shred anytime more than two-thirds of the plant tips are broken, regardless of how much growth exists, unless the hail was so severe that only stubble remains. After these early cuttings, delay your next harvest to allow plants extra time to recover from this stress.

Remember that how you manage this will affect growth rates of this and your next cutting.

Soybean aphids on a single stem.

The soybean aphid is new to North America. It is an Asian soybean pest that was first discovered in the United States in Wisconsin in summer 2000. Since then it has spread throughout the north central United States and parts of Canada. We expect the aphid to spread to all soybean-producing areas of Nebraska.

Heavy infestations of this insect can cause significant damage and yield loss. Yield losses exceeding 25% were observed in Minnesota and Iowa in 2000. In addition, soybean aphids can transmit viral diseases, such as alfalfa mosaic, soybean mosaic, bean yellow mosaic, peanut mottle, peanut smut, and peanut stripe.

Soybean aphid description

The aphid is light green to pale yellow, less than 1/16 inch long, and has two black-tipped cornicles (cornicles look like tailpipes) on the rear of the abdomen. It has piercing-sucking mouthparts and typically feeds on new tissue near the top of soybean plants or on the undersides of mature leaves. Later in the season the aphids can be found on all parts of the plant. It is the only aphid in North America that forms colonies on soybean.

Life cycle and injury to soybean

The seasonal life cycle of the soybean aphid is complex with up to 18 generations a year. It requires two species of host plant -- buckthorn and soybean -- to complete its life cycle. Buckthorn, a woody shrub or tree, is the overwintering host plant of the aphid. Soybean aphids lay eggs on buckthorn in the fall. These eggs overwinter and hatch in the spring, giving rise to wingless females. These females reproduce without mating, producing more females. After two or three generations on buckthorn, winged females are produced that migrate to soybean.

Multiple generations of wingless female aphids are produced on soybeans until late summer/fall, when winged females and males are produced and migrate back to buckthorn, where they mate. The females then lay eggs on buckthorn, which overwinter, thus completing the seasonal cycle. Soybean aphid populations can grow to extremely high levels under favorable environmental conditions. Reproduction is fastest when temperatures are 72-77^oF. Developmental time slows when temperatures exceed 81^oF. When populations reach high levels during the summer (there were reports of up to 13,000 aphids per plant in Michigan), winged females are produced and migrate to other soybean fields. Like a number of other insect species (e.g. potato leafhoppers), these migrants can be caught up in weather patterns, moved great distances, and end up infesting fields far from their origin.

Soybean aphids injure soybeans by removing plant sap with their needle-like mouthparts. Symptoms of soybeans infested by soybean aphid may include yellowed, distorted leaves and stunted plants. A charcoal-colored residue also may be present on the plants. This is sooty mold that grows on the honeydew that aphids excrete. Soybean plants appear to be most vulnerable to aphid injury during the early reproductive stages. Heavy aphid infestations during these stages can cause reduced pod and seed counts.

Soybean aphid management

The aphid is very new to North America. As we gain more experience with it, the following management recommendations will be refined for Nebraska conditions.

Nebraska wheat growers are urged to check wheat fields for this insect. This can best be done by using a sweep net to sample throughout the field. The larvae will tend to be more common in the field margins so it's important to sample the whole field to achieve an accurate assessment. The wheathead armyworm can be up to 1 inch long, tapered (narrowed) toward the rear end, and greenish gray with yellow and brown stripes. Little can be done if infestations are found in nearly mature wheat, but more serious damage may still be prevented in green wheat. If treat-ments are deemed necessary, harvest intervals for the insecticide will be a major consideration.

Mexican bean beetles have shown up in greater numbers earlier this year in Panhandle dry beans. High populations coupled with slow plant growth in the cooler weather have combined to leave some bean stands more vulnerable to this earlier adult feeding damage. It is important to examine fields for beetles and feeding to determine the severity of infestations. Beans can tolerate considerable defoliation while in the vegetative stages (up to 25%) without serious impact, but small plants can be threatened by extensive feeding. Infestations that approach 20% defoliation on small beans would probably justify treatment. These early infestations are often more serious on field margins. Applying lower use rates in narrow bands over the small plants will reduce treatment costs and should provide acceptable control.

C. Dean Yonts, Extension Engineer at the Panhandle REC: Many areas in the Panhandle remain dry. Some areas received up to 1 inch of rain the past few days, but most areas received less than 0.1 inch. Row crops are still looking good despite the dryness, partially due to the recent cool weather. In anticipation of warmer weather pump irrigators are beginning to start their systems as the soil dries. Once it warms up and crop water use increases, operators may have a hard time keeping up with crop water demands. Storing water in the soil profile while water use is reduced can help later in the season.

In the North Platte Valley, many of the larger irrigation districts will begin making water deliveries this week. Surface irrigators are still anticipating about a 50% supply compared to normal; irrigation districts hope to stretch this limited water supply for approximately 60 days. This means water supplies should be depleted by late August.

There also have been numerous reports of domestic wells going dry in the North Platte Valley. This has been caused primarily by the lack of recharge coming from the irrigation canals. Water was shut off early last year and is coming in late this year. With the increased demand for ground water, shallow wells are experiencing some difficulty. These issues may subside when the canals begin running; however, with an early shutdown again this year, increased demand for groundwater, and the lack of rain we are still in the middle of a significant drought and may likely see some of the same problems again next year.

John Watkins, Extension Plant Pathologist, Lincoln: With the recent rains and heat, leaf diseases are continuing to develop in wheat. We're way beyond the treatment window for any wheat diseases, however.

Producers should be scouting their alfalfa fields for summer black stem and other leaf spotting diseases. In a dense canopy leaf diseases could cause considerable defoliation before the next cutting. The cutting may need to be taken a little earlier if the plants are starting to lose leaves to disease. Scouting the alfalfa stand early to assess leaf disease incidence and severity can help you decide about whether an early cutting is necessary and can may reduce forage losses. Leaf loss due to disease reduces the quality of the forage harvested.

Windrow disease presents special management challenges. Where stands have been thinned by disease, weeds often invade and will need to be sprayed. During the next growth period, plants that were not smothered regrow rapidly, while plants underneath the windrow suffer delays. Part of the field often will begin to bloom while windrow-stressed plants are still short and tender. So when do you harvest? When the first plants begin to bloom or do you wait until injured plants are ready?

Consider two factors when deciding when to cut: the health and vigor of your stand and the nutrient needs of your livestock. For example, is your alfalfa healthy and regrowing well? If not, wait to cut until stunted plants begin to bloom so you can avoid weakening them even more.

However, if your alfalfa is in good shape, cut when it will best meet the needs of your animals. Dairy cows need alfalfa that is cut early, so harvest when the first plants begin to bloom. Regrowth of injured plants may be slow after cutting, but this sacrifice is needed for profitable milk production. In contrast, beef cows do not need such rich hay. Let stunted plants recover, and then cut when they are ready to bloom.

Early spring flooding is a lot less harmful than late spring flooding when the flood waters are apt to be warm. The temperature of the flood water is important for two reasons:

1. there is less oxygen available in warm water than in cool water; and
2. microorganisms that use oxygen are more active in warm water and will compete with roots for oxygen. After using the oxygen, microorganisms will begin to break down nitrate nitrogen, converting it to a gas through denitrification. (During flooding, nitrogen also is apt to be lost through leaching.)

Seth Naeve, Extension Soybean Specialist at the University of Minnesota, notes several indirect effects of flooding on soybeans, which producers also may need to be addressed. They include 1) root diseases, 2) nitrogen deficiency, 3) and other plant nutrient imbalances. Caring for recuperating soybean stands should focus on reducing further plant stress where possible.

Cultivation should be considered to increase soil aeration, and post- emergence herbicides should only be applied to conventional soybean crops judiciously. Herbicide stress should be minimized and postponed where possible, Naeve writes in his University of Minnesota publication, Flooded Fields and Soybean Survival, MNCN80, published June 14, 2002.

Producers may want to carefully weigh the costs and benefits of further inputs into some badly damaged fields. To confirm plant survival, check the color of the growing point. It should be white and cream colored rather than dark and soft. New leaf growth should appear three to five days after water drains from the field.

Replanting may not be a very viable option in many fields where conditions are likely to stay soggy for several weeks, not allowing for timely field work and planting.

Soybean producers with field populations below 75,000 plants per acre may consider replanting if they can get back into the field relatively soon. Lenis Nelson, Extension Crops Specialist, did not recommend changing the maturity class significantly when replanting soybeans. If a producer had previously planted a mid-group II variety, he or she might consider now planting an early group II variety.

Nelson also recommended planting in narrow rows so the canopy closes faster and weeds are better controlled.

Generally corn grows faster than soybean, so if it's left uncontrolled it will overtop the soy-bean canopy. Control can be achieved by mechanical means (eg. inter-row cultivation) and herbicides. Timing of inter-row cultivation should depend on the weed pressure. If volunteer corn is a predominant "weed", cultivate at about the 5-6 leaf stage of corn. The growing point of corn remains in the ground until the 6th leaf stage. Therefore, any cultivation prior to that leaf stage may result in regrowth of the plant, necessitating a second cultivation. It is especially true with shallow cultivation.

If you have Roundup-Ready soybean, Roundup will control volunteer corn, unless you have had Roundup Ready corn in the previous year. Roundup will not control volunteer Roundup Ready corn in Roundup Ready soybeans.

Herbicides also can be used to effectively control volunteer corn. Several grass type herbicides (graminicides) can be used at lower rates post-emergence in both conventional and Roundup Ready soybean. These herbicides and their lower rates include: Assure (4 oz), Fusilade (4 oz), Fusion (2 oz), Poast Plus (10-16 oz), and Select (4 oz). Best control is achieved when herbicides are applied by the 3-4 leaf stage of corn. These herbicides at full label rates also will control many grassy species, including barnyardgrass, green and yellow foxtail, fall panicum and sandbur.

Unfortunately, previous herbicide use also can cause problems with forages. Many corn and sorghum herbicides will injure pearl millet and foxtail millet. Sudangrass, forage sorghum, and sorghum-sudan hybrids will tolerate moderate levels of atrazine, and with some herbicides, using safened seed may be an option. These sorghums also tolerate most herbicides labeled for use with grain sorghum.

Another possible emergency forage crop is short-season corn as silage or late season as pasture, especially if the previous corn herbicides eliminate other crop possibilities.

Soybean herbicides that have residual soil activity can cause even bigger problems for replanting to forages. All summer grasses are sensitive to most soybean herbicides. Sunflower silage and soybeans for hay or silage are among the few alternatives compatible with soybean herbicide carryover.

Even when you find out that an annual forage will grow, sometimes you may not be allowed to feed it legally. Many row crop herbicides have specific restrictions or at least lack approval for use with forages. Carefully check your options before making your selection.

Nobody likes to replant, but if you must, select a forage that is compatible with your herbicides and livestock.

Spreading both the long straw and the fines is critical. The key to being able to plant through the crop residue next spring begins at harvest this summer and fall with good crop residue distribution.

Table 1. Winter wheat stubble in 2000 and no-till dryland corn yields (bu/A) in 2001 at Tribune, KS; 2001 (A. Schlegel, KSU). Stubble height Treatment Low, 7.5" High, 15" Corn/bu/acre the next year No-till, initial spraying in July 44 59 Delayed spraying until mid-August 25 38

One critical factor is to cut the winter wheat as high as possible up to a height of 15 inches. Allan Schlegel, research agronomist at Kansas State University, conducted a study in 2001 at Tribune, Kansas to examine the effect of height of wheat stubble and time of spraying on no-till corn yields the next year. Moisture was very limited at Tribune in 2001.

With a stubble height of 15 inches vs 7.5 inches and initial weed control in July, the corn yield increase was 15 bushels per acre or 2 bushels per inch of additional stubble height (Table 1). Each average filled wheat head per square foot is equal to about 1 bushel per acre. It may take 1.5 to 2 or more of the lower heads to equal a bushel since these are usually smaller with smaller kernels. If wheat is worth $3/bu and additional cost for custom harvest is $0.13/bu plus $0.13/bu to haul or a total of $0.26 cost per bushel for a net return of $2.74/bu. These results indicate you can give up at least one head and probably two or three heads of wheat per square foot to get an additional inch of stubble height. The table also indicates the value of starting weed control in July vs mid-August with yield increases of 19 to 21 bushels depending on stubble height.

After harvest, begin weed control as quickly as possible so weeds can't get an early foothold, stealing valuable moisture from the crop and producing seed. Consider using a glyphosate and if adding 2,4-D, it's preferable to use an amine formulation to avoid volatilization with ester formulations.

Then in September, apply atrazine and use a burndown herbicide to take care of winter annuals and volunteer wheat. Controlling volunteer wheat almost eliminates the potential for the disease wheat streak mosaic.

In summary, cutting the stubble at 15 inches instead of 7.5 inches and starting weed control in July vs. mid-August combined for a yield increase of 34 bushels per acre. Standing residue offers more benefits than cut residue, which deteriorates more quickly.

Stripper headers are best used with the semi-dwarf varieties with good straw strength and can leave more standing residue. When used with the taller wheat varieties and/or shorter varieties with poor straw strength the stubble tends to lodge, making it difficult to plant or seed. Stripper headers also work very well in lodged wheat. The more straw is cut up by the combine, the more fragile it becomes.

Good distribution of the crop residue is important to making this system work. This includes spreading both the long straw and fines. With poor crop residue distribution you lose twice. Too much residue makes planting difficult and complicates control of volunteer wheat. Too little residue won't provide the benefit of residue suppressing weeds. In most of Nebraska in most years, dryland crop yields are maximized at crop residue levels of 6,000 lbs if good crop stands are obtained.

Photo by Brett Hampton

The primary question facing producers is whether the crop can make up for the planting delays and overcome the cool start in early June. It is highly unlikely that deficits can be overcome during the next two months, but they could be erased with above normal temperatures from mid-August through mid-September.

Growing Degree Day (GDD) units are the primary method for tracking crop development. Corn GDD unit accumulations use the following formula: ((Tmax + Tmin)/2) - 50. Tmax indicates the maximum temperature on a given day, while Tmin indicates the minimum temperature.

However, these variables are limited by upper and lower base temperatures of 86^oF and 50^oF. Therefore, anytime Tmin dips below 50^oF or Tmax rises above 86^oF, the equation forces Tmax and/or Tmin back to the upper or lower base. For example, a temperature of 96^oF would provide the same GDD units as a temperature of 86^oF.

From July 1 through August 15, the normal high temperature for all of Nebraska is over 86^oF. Due to the limitations on the GDD accumulation equation, it is impossible to gain GDD units, as compared to normal, based on above normal maximum temperatures. The only way to cut into accumulated GDD deficits is to have above normal minimum temperatures. For every 2^oF that the minimum temperature is above normal, you would reduce accumulated deficits by one GDD unit.

Table 1. Growing Degree Day (GDD) accumulations and departures comparisons based upon the average 2003 corn emergence dates. Site Avg emerg. date GDDs accumulated from emerg. GDD depart. (+ or -) from emerg GDD depart. (+ or -) from 5/15* Scottsbluff 5/27 327 41 -93 Imperial 5/26 326 18 -119 McCook 5/26 332 -2 -131 North Platte 5/26 322 -1 -128 Ord 5/26 301 -59 -192 Clay Center 5/23 362 -60 -204 Beatrice 5/17 416 -127 -152 Mead 5/22 356 -110 -201 Concord 5/26 295 -66 -198 *May 15 was used as the normal emergence date for corn for comparison.

The table shows accumulated GDD units from several locations, based on the average emergence date reported by the Nebraska Agricultural Statistics Service for the corresponding agricultural district. In addition, GDD departures from the average emergence date and from May 15 are included. These departures are derived by calculating the GDD units under normal temperatures, then subtracting them from the GDD units that have accumulated this year.

Positive GDD accumulation departures since emergence in the table indicate warmer than normal temperatures have occurred, while negative numbers indicate cooler than normal temperatures. During the last 30 days, only areas west of North Platte have been warmer than normal. When you add the GDDs that were lost because of the planting delays in May, it is obvious that all locations within the state are behind normal, with the greatest departures in eastern Nebraska. Using the High Plains Regional Climate Center phenological models, the statewide average maturity date for corn (100% black layer) is projected for the last week of September. This maturity date assumes normal temperatures through the rest of the growing season. If temperatures remain normal from July 1 to August 15 and average 2^oF above normal for the rest of the season, the 100% black layer date will occur around September 20. Conversely, if temperatures are below normal during the next two months, the corn crop will not reach maturity until the first half of October.

The situation for the nation's corn crop is worse across the eastern Corn Belt. Eastern Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio have been locked into a persistently cool pattern for the last few months. Iowa reported that the average height of their corn crop on June 22 was 19 inches compared to a normal 29 inches. In Illinois, the average height of the corn crop was 18 inches, compared to the normal 30 inches.

If normal temperatures occur from this point forward, most of the corn crop should come into pollination during the last 10 days of July. Statistically, this is the hottest time of the year. In addition, corn maturity dates are projected to occur during the first 15 days of October. Above normal temperatures after August 15 could shift the crop maturity date into the first week of October.

Right now the greatest risk for freeze damage to the corn crop appears to be in Minnesota and Wisconsin. However, below normal temperatures for the rest of the growing season will significantly increase the probability of freeze damage.

USDA-APHIS and NDA may still have cost-share dollars available for treatment, but these funds are diminishing. Treatment costs can be split in thirds between the federal government, the state government and the rancher.

Producers are required to organize and collectively have at least a 10,000-acre block of land for the treatment program to be enacted. Not more than 20% of the block may be crop land, and the crop land would not be treated under this program. Program participants also must be prepared to put their one-third portion of the treatment cost into an escrow account prior to the treatment action.

For more information on the program, contact Steve Johnson at USDA/APHIS/PPQ, Lincoln, (402) 434-2345 or (402) 434-2346.

In the major wheat growing areas, as of June 1, topsoil moisture supplies were rated mostly adequate and subsoil moisture supplies were rated adequate to short. Crop condition rated mostly good with development normal at 69% headed. Disease and insect pressure have been light.

Crop condition rated mostly good with development normal at 69% headed. Disease and insect pressure have been light.

Two longer related programs will be broadcast in July and August. A documentary and call-in show will be broadcast on NPRN Thursday, July 31, from 7 to 8:30 p.m. A related, call-in program, “Nebraska Connects: Drought,” will explore the long-term financial and social effects of the drought. It will be broadcast at 7 p.m. Wednesday, Aug. 20.

Topics will include: herbicide, disease, and insect diagnostics and agronomic challenge plots; irrigation scheduling; manure and nutrient management; soil moisture conservation; soil yield potential and problem soils; rootworms and the root rating system; and seed treatments and corn rootworm control guidelines.

To register, call (402) 624-8000 or (800)529-8030, via fax at (402) 624-8010, via e-mail at cdunbar2@unl.edu, or write to NU ARDC, CMDC Programs, 1071 County Road G, Ithaca, Neb. 68033. Registrants signing up for the e-mail list will save $10 on the registration fee.

Placements in feedlots during May totaled 360,000 head, up 3% from 2002 but 4% below 2001. Marketings of fed cattle during May totaled 500,000 head, up 12% from last year but 4% below May two years ago. Other disappearance during May totaled 10,000 compared with 15,000 last year and 15,000 during May 2001.

At the national level, cattle and calves on feed for slaughter market in the United States for feedlots with capacity of 1,000 or more head totaled 10.53 million head on June 1, 2003. The inventory was 4% below June 1, 2002 and 6% below June 1, 2001.

Placements in feedlots during May totaled 2.30 million, 1% above 2002 but 3% below 2001. Marketings of fed cattle during May totaled 2.23 million, 3% above 2002 and 1% above 2001. Other disappearance totaled 65,000 during May, 16% below 2002 and 36% below 2001.

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